Evaluate the Evidence for Human Impacts on Downstream Flood Risk in Rural Catchment Areas in Temperate Regions

Assess the proof for human effects on downstream flood chance in provincial catchments in mild locales. Before we can assess human effects on flood hazard we should initially build up what is implied by mild areas and furthermore rustic catchments. Calm districts are for the most part viewed as lying between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle or the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle and accordingly waterways researched in this exposition will fall inside these boundaries. Rustic catchments are somewhat harder to characterize, as today not many huge waterways don't have some type of urban advancement inside their catchments territory. In this paper a stream that is still in a transcendently country catchment will be talked about regardless of whether there are regions of urban land inside the catchment. People sway on flood hazard can be categorized as one of two classifications. The first is purposely and straightforwardly, through floodplain rebuilding, development of dams and channel recovery and these have genuinely evident beneficial outcomes on diminishing flood hazard. Anyway it is when people in a roundabout way influence the flood chance, through deforestation, land use change and environmental change (which all negatively affect flood hazard) that there is less conviction into the degree of the effect that people have. In general however obviously human movement has come about in ‘major changes’ (Goudie, 2006) in downstream flood chance in calm districts and rustic catchments. The most evident manner by which people sway downstream flood chance is through direct adjustment of the waterway itself and this is additionally apparently likewise the most significant manner by which people can affect flood chance (Mrwoka, 1974). Damming is likely the most across the board case of how people look to control top streams on waterways and the development of dams in the UK has prompted critical declines in flooding. The supply made on the River Avon involves 1. 38% of the catchment however decreases top stream by 16% and considerably more astonishingly the repository on the Catcleugh in the Cheviots involves 2. 72% of the catchment and decreases top stream by 71% (Petts and Lewin, 1979). The production of dams obviously diminishes the flood hazard generally speaking, nonetheless, dams have an a lot littler impact on uncommon flood occasions of high size, because of the way that there is a limited measure of water a dam can hold during times of high, drawn out precipitation (Goudie, 2006). On the River Avon the proportion of pre-dam releases to post-dam releases is a minor 1. 02 of every a once-in-multi year occasion (Petts and Lewin, 1979). In any case, regardless of this, man’s development of dams despite everything has a huge effect in diminishing pinnacle flood and accordingly flood chance in downstream catchment zones. Floodplain reclamation is another case of people intentionally affecting on flood chance. It has been determined that the flood decrease capacity of 3800 hectares of floodplain stockpiling on the Charles River, Massachusetts spared US$ 17 million worth of downstream flood harm every year (US Corps of Engineers, 1972). Reclamation has occurred on the River Cherwell among Oxford and Banbury. Here the dikes were expelled and the channels reestablish to their pre-1900 measurements. Because of the recovery of the channel top stream was decreased by between 10-15% and the dikes which had been evacuated were appeared to have been expanding top stream by between 50-150% (Acreman et al, 2003). This unmistakably demonstrates the degree to which people can effectively work to decrease the flood hazard in a country catchment region, and shows how significant the job of floodplain rebuilding and channel restoration is when diminishing pinnacle streams. A prime case of human movement by implication influencing flood chance examples is through deforestation. The guideline here is that by expelling vegetation, you evacuate the limit with respect to a noteworthy level of precipitation to be captured by the vegetation and afterward dissipated before it arrives at the stream. Along these lines, if people evacuate the vegetation in a catchment territory this can build run-off and subsequently flood chance. A test study was led in 1910 to explore the degree to which vegetation inclusion influenced top stream in Colorado. Stream streams from two watersheds of around 80 hectares in size were looked at more than 8 years, before one valley was clear-felled. The catchment territory which had encountered clear felling experienced 17% more prominent yearly stream and furthermore essentially higher pinnacle streams (Goudie, 2006). In 1998 the Yangtze River encountered its most exceedingly terrible floods for more than 40 years, with high water staying in certain regions for 70 days. Despite the fact that the precipitation over that timeframe was extraordinary, the degree of the flooding (which caused over $20billion in harms) has likewise been connected to the far reaching deforestation that had occurred upstream of the floods. In 1957 the timberland inclusion of the stream bowl was 22% yet by 1986 this figure had been diminished to 10% (Yin et al, 1998). Regardless of this, it has been contended that during times of delayed precipitation, vegetation loses its capacity to lessen top stream as there is a limited breaking point to how much water vegetation can hold. An investigation on the Yangtze indicated that under 90mm of overwhelming precipitation, surface run-off was 65mm in forested territories and 35mm in non-forested zones and in this way the woods doesn't hold more run-off (Cheng et al, 1998) and along these lines flood hazard is no more noteworthy. Be that as it may, there can be no uncertainty that deforestation diminishes drainage misfortunes and hence expands the union of leakage water and that deforestation expanded the earnestness of the flooding that the Yangtze experienced in 1998 (Yin and Lee, 1999). The kind of vegetation in a waterway bowl can likewise have an effect on flood hazard, and human movement can in a roundabout way influence this. The rule here is that a few sorts of vegetation hold more water than others and thusly their essence diminishes flood hazard. The catchment region of the Coweeta River in North Carolina was changed over from deciduous hardwood woodland to pine (which is evergreen) over a time of 15 years, from 1940 onwards, and accordingly stream was decreased by 20% (Swank and Douglas, 1974). Be that as it may, albeit particular sorts of plant may for sure altogether decrease stream, the effect they have on flood chance is frequently extensively littler. It has been evaluated that a woods of Ash juniper trees block around 40% of the precipitation that falls on them every year (Owens et al, 2006). This figure is so high as Ash juniper trees are evergreen and accordingly assimilate water throughout the entire year be that as it may, during storms, this figure is decreased to around 10%. This figure remains genuinely comparable for most vegetation during high tempests. We can in this manner state that in spite of the fact that people adjusting the kind of vegetation in a catchment region affects in general stream, the degree to which this lessens the flood chance downstream is insignificant (Wilcox et al, 2006). Land use change is another case of human movement which, in spite of the fact that it isn't finished with the expectation of adjusting stream attributes, despite everything affects downstream flood hazard. Creating urban regions in some time ago rustic ones is currently broadly recognized to have a ‘considerable’ hydrological sway, predominantly careful the manners by which it adjusts overflow (Hollis, 1988). Basically this urbanization delivers an embroidery of impermeable surfaces that expansion run-off and accordingly release during times of high precipitation (Graf, 1977). Notwithstanding, Hollis (1975) contends that while urbanization may expand the repeat time period floods, in uncommon huge scope floods, land use change has little impact on the general pinnacle stream, because of the way that during enormous tempests, rustic regions become immersed rapidly and afterward carry on similarly as urban regions. Notwithstanding this, we can in any case say that land use change from urban to country expands the flood hazard, regardless of whether this expansion in chance is just during littler occasions. In spite of the fact that we are looking at flood hazard in provincial catchment regions, improvement of urban pockets in these zones should in any case be thought of, as even catchments with just some urbanization are still bound to endure flooding (Wilson, 1967). Environmental change is another manner by which man in a roundabout way can affect flooding hazard in spite of the fact that this is a fervently challenged point, as no totally satisfactory clarification of environmental change has been introduced previously (Goudie, 2006). In any case, some atmosphere models have still anticipated that environmental change throughout the following 100 years will prompt higher flood hazard. This is because of the way that in a hotter atmosphere, the air can hold more water, which builds the potential for inactive warmth discharge during low weight frameworks and hence expanded precipitation is likely (Frei et al, 1998). A model in 2002 created by the EU bunch PRUDENCE looked at mid year precipitation in terrain Europe from 1961-1990 and the conjecture for 2071-2100 dependent on the climatic expectations made in the IPCC report. This found albeit generally speaking precipitation may marginally diminish over the mid year, precipitation occasions in the 95th percentile for power would altogether expand (Christensen J and Christensen O, 2003). This would clearly build the flood hazard downstream in rustic catchments. Be that as it may, in spite of the fact that environmental change may, in the coming century, demonstrate to significantly affect flooding, as of now the subject is excessively vigorously bantered to reach any solid determinations on the degree to which human actuated environmental change builds flooding hazard. We can in this manner see that people sway on flood chance in an assortment of ways, some constructive and some antagonistic and all to fluctuating degrees. It merits remembering that in certain zones man might be affecting on flood hazard in both a negative and positive way and thusly having a significantly bigger effect on the stream than would from the start be self-evident. The proof for man affecting on flood chance downstream in rur

Lorraine Glass :: essays research papers

Scene Writing and the Lorrain Glass      Looking through my Lorrain glass I saw various states of mind of a scene. I sat on my vehicle and watched out over a field of apple trees, raspberry shrubberies, and pumpkin patches. Toward the finish of the fields was an enormous white house with a huge amount of windows. The house had a wide yard that went right around to the back. I was unable to see a lot of detail from such a significant stretch, however the smoke coming out of the stack let me know there was somebody inside.      I picked three unique hues to place into my Lorrain glass. Red, yellow, and green records of shading all gave an alternate inclination to the image I was making in my casing. It was practically similar to a preview. I picked hues that I thought were definitely unique to give an alternate inclination for a similar scene.      Each record gave an alternate inclination, however they appeared to be comparative fit as a fiddle. Through the cellophane wrap, when the breeze blew, the pictures appeared to wave. They had a little inclination and looked as though they were moving. It was around 4 p.m. what's more, the sun was simply going down. The sun would hit the Lorrain Glass and made the picture splendid.  â â â â The red bit of cellophane caused me to feel hot. I felt that the sun coming through caused it to appear to be much hotter. It gave me a sentiment of desert warmth with not a single water to be seen. All the trees looked uncovered and dead. The yellow bit of paper caused everything to appear to be radiant and splendid. The house looked brimming with light. I could picture in my brain the proprietor of the house having a glass of lemonade on the patio. The trees, the house, and the pumpkins all appear to spring up. They looked full and vivacious. The green cellophane appeared to be somewhat cold and dim. The sun coming through obviously caused it to appear to be somewhat more brilliant however it despite everything had that feeling of dismalness. The pumpkins looked spoiled and old, the trees seemed exposed with rotten ones around its base, and the house just appeared to mix into the back round.

Individual Rights essays

Singular Rights expositions An individual with HIV/AIDS ought to have indistinguishable rights from some other individual without HIV/AIDS. Everybody ought to be dealt with similarly, without segregation. We have been instructed that segregation isn't right, so for what reason would it be alright to be prejudiced towards somebody with HIV/AIDS? There ought to be no special case; an individual ought to be dealt with similarly with or without this malady. The casualties whom experience the ill effects of this illness are individuals also; they are the same as you. In the event that Apartheid was as yet drilled in South Africa, that would be illegal. On the off chance that the individuals who have HIV/AIDS were to be separated from rest of the general public it would be equivalent to Apartheid. These individuals are equivalent to some other person, they have emotions and they endure. They ought not suffer segregation or have their privileges removed, they experience the ill effects of the ailment. It is inappropriate to show partiality towards an individual of the diverse sex or religion, and to segregate an individual since AIDS influences them is similarly as off-base. Many probably won't have similar suppositions or musings since they have thought about the dangers of living among individuals with HIV/AIDS. Notwithstanding, there are different approaches to enable the general public to control the spread of HIV/AIDS. Training would be key here, security tips for the anticipation of HIV can help tremendously. Another choice would be to simply precautionary measures when managing HIV/AIDS. In the event that the correct precautionary measures are made, at that point the infection can't hurt others. Others accept that casualties of HIV/AIDS ought to be isolated or separated to forestall this infection. This by the by, it isn't just a ghastly method to treat individuals, it conflicts with what we have endeavored to accomplish, value. What's more, in light of the insights there are more that 38 million individuals with AIDS on the planet, isolate would appear to be exceptionally unreasonable. What we need to comprehend is that AIDS can't be evaporated that effectively, taking such uncommon activities wil ... <!

Pretend you dont see her Essay Example For Students

Imagine you dont see her Essay Mary Higgins Clark has conveyed to perusers the fifteenth of her top rated suspensers. In thestarring job this time is Lacey Farrell, a major wheel realtor. Lacey sells extravagance condominiums inNew York City and becomes companions with one of her customers, Isabelle Landi. Their conversationsare revolved around Isabelles little girl, who passed on a few years prior in an auto collision; however,the mother is horribly upset since she doesn't accept that it was a mishap. She isconvinced that the appropriate response lies in a diary that her girl kept until she kicked the bucket. Because of hercuriosity, Isabelle is killed in her little girls loft similarly as Lacey enters the front entryway. Assessment This epic was very elegantly composed and made them wonder who was behind the killings until the end. Mary Higgins Clark was truly adept at keeping this novel intriguing consistently so I needed to continue understanding it. The territories that I will assess are improvement of character, the advancement of tension, and the end. The character, Sandy Savarano, was mind boggling and was depicted well. The starting when he depicted the potential purchaser, Curtis Caldwell, was astute. He was not the slightest bit suspected to be a danger or unsafe in any capacity. He at that point ended up being a very notable hired gunman. Mary Higgins Clark made this character brilliant and made it so he could discover any person or thing he needed to. At that point, later in this novel he filled the role of an older man who should be Alices father. He got a ton of data about Lacy from clueless companions and associates. In general, this character was one of my top choices since he was trul y intriguing and you werent sure what he would do straightaway. The anticipation advancement was finished. In a few distinct minutes the tension continued for a few pages before something really occurred. For instance, in the part where Lacy went to converse with Mrs. Hoffman and Sandy was in her home. Clark put such a large number of engaging words in her composing that you could really envision what was happening. She went from the women hearing the means squeak, at that point ?they saw through the wooden rails in the steps his one all around finished shoe.? ? Lacys slight and trembling hand got a handle on a paperweight the size of a baseball. She stood up, swung her arm back, and, as the professional killer she knew as Curtis Caldwell came into full view, tossed the paperweight with all the quality she could summon, at his chest.? He fell on the floor and dropped his weapon and the police came in to capture him before he could execute the ladies. This occasion was only one of th e numerous thrilling minutes in this novel. The finish of this story was sudden. I had no clue that Steve Abbott, a confided in partner of Jimmy Landis, was liable for the entirety of the killings and the unpleasant experience that Lacy Farrell experienced. He was referenced all through the novel as a decent businessperson, a representative that everybody needed, and an appealing man that was never associated with any wrong-doing. This was a generally excellent determination to a very elegantly composed novel. Generally speaking, this novel was intriguing and flighty. It had the entirety of the significant components to make a story incredible, murder, puzzle, tragedy, sentiment, and anticipation.

Analytical View Of James Joyces Araby Essays - Araby, James Joyce

Expository View Of James Joyces' Araby Essays - Araby, James Joyce Expository View Of James Joyces' Araby # Goldstein ## Sara Goldstein Ernst Account Fiction 22 October 2000 An Analytical View of Araby Perspectives from which stories are composed are utilized to upgrade the general point a story is making. James Joyces Araby is no special case. Described by a little youngster of around twelve or thirteen, it delineates his own transitioning. The use of a first individual portrayal permits the peruser to see things the manner in which the kid sees them; be as guiltless and thoughtful as he seems to be, along these lines feeling the staggering power of his possible acknowledgment. Notwithstanding this transitioning topic, unpredictably woven all through are clues to Joyces derisive perspective on Roman Catholicism, just as numerous scriptural inferences. Araby happens when the new century rolled over in Dublin, Ireland. As of now in history the Catholic Church had an incredible hang on the nation. James Joyce held an enormous abhorrence for the Roman Catholic Church and the strains it set forth, anyway these were not emotions that could be shared transparently. Rather Joyce expounded on them in an emblematic manner, utilizing his composition as an instrument to stand up. The initial section of this story sets it up as one that will do only that. He states, ...it was a peaceful road with the exception of at the hour when the Christian Brothers School set the young men free, recommending that their religion had detained them. The previous occupant of the young men house, an altruistic cleric, had passed on inside and left his cash to establishments and his furniture to his sister. This could be a representative reference to the fall of Roman Catholicism; his home being the nation of Ireland, the minister being the religion. It is addit ionally intriguing to take note of that the minister passed on with a great deal of cash essentially an opposing circumstance (however the storyteller neglects to scrutinize this because of his naivet. How might a cleric end up with such a lot of cash? This is a potential wound at the false reverence and unscrupulousness of the congregation. Religion, overall comes up emblematically commonly all through the story. Joyce makes evident reference to the Garden of Eden while depicting the wild nursery behind the house [which] contained a focal apple tree. This is a corresponding to a notable go wrong, as the kid will before long understanding. Furthermore, about all the young men musings of his quiet reverence can be distinguished as strict references. A significant number of them happen to be sexual wants smothered by religion. The young lady is definitely utilized as a portrayal of the Virgin Mary. One night, before the bazaar, the kid keeps an eye out the window the earthy colored clad figure cast by my creative mind, contacted tactfully by the lamplight at the bended neck, at the hand upon the railings and at the outskirt beneath the dress. All the more explicitly, when the uncle has not yet come back to take the kid to the bazaar, the auntie proposes that he put off the bazaar during the current night of our ruler. This late evening being Saturday, the administration which is committed to reverence of Virgin Mary-kind of what he is doing by going to Araby for the young lady. It is additionally intriguing to take note of that there are on various occasions when he alludes to his fixation in strict terms, for example, her name coming to him in supplication, or her words playing him as though he were a harp. Because of solid strict commitments, sexuality was significantly subdued during the hour of this story. This thought was clearly outlined in the passage which expresses All my faculties appeared to want to shroud themselves and, feeling that I was going to slip from them, I squeezed the palms of my hands together until they trembled, mumbling O love! O love! commonly. The extraordinary sexual connotations of this entry are indisputable. It represents the young men disarray of religion and sexuality. An all the more straight forward case of sexual topics happens when the young lady and kid really talk. Her commitments to her religion (the retreat) abrogate her increasingly sexual wants, while she discharges her apprehensive sexual pressure through whirling her silver arm band around her arm. Besides, the kid appears to make a sexual picture of the young lady

In which I show no restraint whatsoever

In which I show no restraint whatsoever On Sunday, I moved out of Senior Haus for the first time in two years, as Im working at CTD again this year as an RTA for Neuroscience and living at Northwestern for the summer makes it difficult to also live at MIT. My summer job doesnt start until June 23rd, though, so Ive been at home ever since. Ive been in my house for what I think is going on the fifth day (fifth? What day is it?? Is it really Thursday???) in a row and everything is really getting to me, so when I was taking a break from playing yet another game of phone Tetris by looking at stuff on the Internet while on the toilet man, I love wireless internet I did something I swore up and down I wouldnt do this year: I joined the MIT Class of 2013 facebook group. Sophomores and juniors can attest to the fact that I spent ample amounts of time last summer and the summer before answering questions and debunking myths. But Im a senior this year, and after three years of this stuff, I should be entitled to a month or two of just not caring whether or not you decide to do Terrascope or a freshman seminar. (Holy crap, Im a senior. When did that happen?! Wasnt I posting obnoxious froshy comments on the blogs just two seconds ago?) I have absolutely nothing better to do, though, so Ill be posting stuff like the points below: -A four-inch memory foam mattress pad, though pretty damn comfortable, is really not necessary for your bed. In fact, I fear that it may swallow you in the middle of the night in January. You cant really trust anything that retains an imprint of your hand for that long, regardless of what those Tempur-Pedic informercials say. -Where you are temped for REX is not that important. I ranked Baker first in my housing lottery three years ago (SERIOUSLY THIS CANT BE RIGHT IM NOT OLD ENOUGH FOR THIS), got temped in New House, and after REX I moved to Senior Haus, which I love so much that Ive been masochistic enough to run Steer Roast and be Haus president for a year. If you dont like where youre temped, you can move. Unless its McCormick. Or Spanish House. Or Chocolate City. Or no, thats it. -It doesnt matter too much when you take 7.012/3/4/5(?) or which incarnation of the class you decide to take, so long as you pass it and graduate. This does not apply if your major requires it for a ton of classes or if you are really bad at bio, in which case you should take it as soon as possible, as Pass/No Record is kind of your BFF. No, I cannot tell you when I decided to take it, as I got a 5 on the AP Bio exam and got credit for the class. The class of 2010 was the last class for which this was allowed, so I like to rub it in a little bit every now and then. I wrote a post on freshman scheduling two years ago (OH GOD I HAVE BEEN HERE TOO LONG ALREADY), which has a basic outline that doesnt need to be followed, as you can see in the comments at the end of the post. -You do not need to bring your own fire extinguisher. Dont laugh. Someone asked this once. -Yes, Im this awesome all the time. Thank you. My hair just dries like this. -Thats actually a lie. Im not very awesome at all. And my hairs a disaster when it dries. Anyway, I suppose Ill be another one of the eleventy million current students answering questions and countering each others advice in the Facebook group. Moving on to more important information: a Japanese manufacturer recently unveiled its latest invention: a robot that cooks you pancakes for breakfast. This would be the highlight of my life thus far, were it not for the fact that good news, everyone! Futurama just got uncanceled! Better than pancakes: Y/N? Y. Definitely a Y.

Damages Clauses - Free Essay Example

Contents: 1. Introduction P.2 2. The criteria necessary for a purported liquidated damages clause.. P.3 3. The main factors of claims P.4 4. The benefits to Employers and Contractors in a valid liquidated damages clause P.5 5. If the liquidated damages clause is not held to be valid and enforceable P.6 6. Conclusions and Recommendations P.10 Question 2: Discuss the criteria necessary for a purported liquidated damages clause to be held to be valid, the benefits that would accrue to Employers and Contractors in agreeing a valid liquidated damages clause and the principles (including but not limited to any disadvantages) involved in claiming damages if the liquidated damages clause is not held to be valid and enforceable 1. Introduction The implementation of construction projects are based Supervision Contract, construction contract as a medium to investors, supervision, construction of the three parties together, both interrelated between them, and mutual restraint, in order to realize the investments project progress the quality objectives are and work together. Therefore, the project contracts are essential for any party to the project file. The construction contract management is the most important daily management. The Fulfillment of Contracts, the contract because of the other party fails to perfo rm or improper performance of the tasks agreed in the contract losses and to the other party claims duration and economic, they constitute the core of contract management. To strengthen construction contract and claims management is not only to ensure the smooth progress of the construction works, the better for companies to avoid the unnecessary loss, strive for more profits The construction industry of Hong Kong determines was rapidly to increase of various engineering construction projects. Demand for the construction industry growing wider. Due to construction in a longer period of time. Moreover, many building and infrastructure projects will be still overflow the original contract period.. For the project quality it directly associated to peoples lives and the property safety. This determines the particularity of the project construction. In project construction, signed a contract to make all kinds of effective measures to ensure the quality of the project. The contract con clusion to the both sides responsibility shall perform the provisions of made clear that if one party does not strictly abide with the terms of the contract entered into by the other party of the contract so that the losses, than the defaulting party shall immediately to stop the breach of contract and shall be punished in the accordance with regulation or pay the injured party liquidated damages to compensate for the loss caused to the other party. 2. The criteria necessary for a purported liquidated damages clause To quote à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Requirements for a valid liquidated damages provision To succeed in a liquidated damages claim contractual, a party must be establishment: There has been a breach of contract; That has suffered a loss; That is a causal connection between the violation and the losses that party wants to close.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  1Pinsent Masons, Out Law .com, guide (Liquidated damages) ( August 2011) https://www.out-law.com/en/topics/projectsconstruction/construction-contracts/liquidated-damages/ Liquidated damages is a agreement when the party of the contract commit to the pay of a certain amount of as a fixed and agreement upon satisfaction for not doing something in especially mentioned in the contract. If the work was completed late such a sum is enforce, due to their default the complete work was late. On the other hand, a penalty is a sum included in the contract which is intended to punish severely the contractor and is far higher than the employer estimated the loss .Such as the sum would be unenforceable. Claims causes: 1. The contract change with technology, continuous development of new technology, the employer of the projects have become more complex, so that very difficult design in construction is increasing, but the scene is often unforeseen happens. So designers in the design perfe ct, absolutely no mistakes is not possible. Often in the construction process, they need for design changes, sometimes according to the situation, the engineer will instruct change construction methods, which would lead to changes in construction costs and schedule. 2. The contract documents (including technical specifications) into the implementation phase defects sometimes contract, only to find that the contract itself has irreparable flaws, or ambiguous language, or the existence of loopholes or contradictions, inconsistencies caused both sides to understand. This will cause controversy, leading to claims. 3. In the construction site is not required to provide the materials, equipment, failure to pay for projects, engineers, mainly in the breach of contract because they cannot solve the problem, errors in the work, demanding inspection and other factors, interfere with normal construction. The reason due to problems with third-party engineering related contract or agreed t o enter into a third party occurred, the impact on the project schedule or cost, and can also be the cause of the claim. 4. Change policies and Ordinance, that regulations mainly refers to the project cost- relevant policies and regulations, because the timing of the project cost has a strong, regional, so the relevant authorities and the rest of the country will be the introduction of relevant policies, laws and regulations. Some are enforceable, and will change with the market, technology, and constantly changing, it will cause changes in the duration and cost become claims. [i]1Pinsent Masons, Out Law .com, guide (Liquidated damages) ( August 2011) https://www.out-law.com/en/topics/projectsconstruction/construction-contracts/liquidated-damages/ 3. The main factors of claims: Due to a contractor to unable to fulfill the contractual obligations and it will be cause a chain reaction. If one fails to various contractors on time, is performed sequentially, and get something done, inevitably bring about the interference with the after sequence construction work units. Due to changes in the environment, such as: market price increases, changes in the law, abnormal weather conditions, unusual geological conditions, are leading to a potential incentive engineering claims. Under the contract should be extended period, the contract price will be adjusted for accordingly Due to the Tender documents, contract-specific terms, general terms of the contract, drawings, of Bill of Quantities and during performance of the contract agreement and a series of supplementary files, if the contract documents are not rigorous, even contradictions, omissions or errors will become produce one of the important factors claims. The Claims are in the process of implementation of the contract, because the other party fails to perform the contract or fails to properly perform their obligations under the contract or fails to protect commitments contractual conditions are fulfilled after suffered a loss, that request for com If the delay is the contractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s responsibility he may consider it financially more advantageous in the absence of an obligation to use best endeavors, to allow the work to overrun the contract period and to pay liquidated damages. 4. The benefits to Employers and Contractors in a valid liquidated damages clause In the construction process, because of the complexity and multiple engineering technology and the environmental variability, it is impossible to completely avoid claims. Claims that the parties to safeguard their economic benefits means the rights of the parties ,as a good claims management it to raise the preventive countermeasures to avoid a con tract controversial, so that the project can be completed in accordance with the scheduled time of high quality, for a win-win for both parties. To quote à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the case law Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co Ltd v New Garage Motor Co Ltd[1915]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  The Court to find out whether the payment provision is in the truth finds or liquidated damages. The liquidated damages is essence for the contract to pre-estimate of damage. A question of construction to be decided upon the terms and for each particular contract under the inherent and judged as at the time of sign the contract circumstances, not as at the time of the breach. Which applicable to the case under considered, prove to be: It will be held to be a penal sum. If the sum is provisions and exorbitant in amount in compare with the greatest of loss that can envisaged in proved to have followed from the breach of contract. A single lump sum is made pay by method of claimant, on the occurrence of one or more or all of multiple events, some of which may occur serious and others but Notable for appear punitive damage. There a no hinder to the sum promised being a real to pre-estimate of damage. That the consequences of the breach of contract are such as to make precise pre-estimation nearly as impossibility. Conversely, the situation when it is possible to obtain at pre-estimate damage be true bargain between the both sides In this case, the essence of liquidated damages is that it is a genuine covenanted pre- estimate of damages. Whether a sum is a penalty or liquidated damages is a question of construction to be decided upon the terms and circumstances of each particular contract judged at the time of making the contract not at the time of breach. Moreover, it must prove their actual losses, mitigation, which is to take reasonable steps, covered by the liquidated damages provisions to avoid or minimize loss of benefits. In fact, if the clause was valid and applicable, the employer will have the right to specify a penalty even if they have no actual losses. 5. If the liquidated damages clause is not held to be valid and enforceable. To quoteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  If liquidated damages become unenforceable and hence an entitlement to unliquidated damages arises, can the unliquidated damages be greater had the liquidated damages. In the event of there being no such provision, time can become at large and the right to levy liquidated damages for any delays caused by the contractor is lost if delays are to any of these reason. In Rapid Building Group v Ealing Family Housing Association Ltd (1984) It is accepted that a party must elect whether to claim liquidated or unliquidated damages; but as it seems to me, where the claim for liquidated damages has been lost or has gone, as has been rightly held by the judge, the defendants are not precluded from pursuing their counterclaim for unliquidated damages. It is not accepted on behalf of the defendants that if they pursue their claim it has on it a ceiling equal to the amount of liquidated damages It was startled to be told in the course of the argument that if any part of the delay was caused by the employer, no matter how slight, then the liquidated damages clause in the contract clause 22 become inoperative. In peak construction it was held: if the employer is in way responsible for the failure to achieve the complet ion date, he can recover no liquidated damages at all and is left to prove such general damages as he may sufferedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  2Roger Knowles (2000) ONE HUNDRED CONTRACTUAL PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS p.68,Blackwell Science Ltd Where liquidated damages become unenforceable it will be for the employer to prove such general or unliquidated damages as he is claiming. This is in contrast to liquidated damages which require no proof to be enforceable. The question then arises as to whether, should the general damages which the claimant is able to prove exceed the liquidated damages included in the contract will payment become due for the greater amount so proved. 2Roger Knowles (2000) ONE HUNDRED CONTRACTUAL PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS p.68,Blackwell Science Ltd 6. Conclusions and Recommendations To conclusion, In this study through the concept of the contract, the main content, causes and current situation of contract management and claims be described, quote the cas e of claims related to introduce Construction Contracts, knowledge of contract management and claims management. Construction contract claims is a complex issue, that involving the knowledge economy, technology, law, management, finance and other aspects. Hong Kong is in a stage of rapid development and the claims are becoming increasingly frequent. Enhanced Claims awareness, strengthen contract and claims management to avoid unnecessary losses, ensure a schedule, quality and economic efficiency of the necessary means. Construction contract is the basis for the claim and the claim is a continuation of contract management. Project claims to prevent the above factors engineering claims analysis produced for the project claim, the owner as a management major is very hard in preventive aspects, specifically should do the following: Earnestly of preparing the project work, to make program, meticulous design work as closely as possible, required under the contract hundred perc ent complete. In the tender document production, and strive to reach contract of engineering content, one-time contract tendering out. In the implementation process of the claim, the claim is particularly important skill. Due to the objective of environmental conditions, and specifically the following: Looking for a claim early opportunity Signing a contract agreement Must be confirmed the verbal of change orders Timely to attach the issue Claims notice 5. Provide adequate demonstrate as a claims report Claims and expenses to calculation under the appropriate methods Individual claim strive to avoid claims; Strive to amicable settlement, prevent antagonism 7. References Case Law Study Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co Ltd v New Garage Motor Co Ltd[1915] Rapid Building Group v Ealing Family Housing Association Ltd (1984) Reference Book 2Roger Knowles (2000)ONE HUNDRED CONTRACTUAL PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS p.68,Blackwell Science Ltd References Online Website 1Pinsent Masons, Out Law .com, guide (Liquidated damages) ( August 2011) https://www.out-law.com/en/topics/projectsconstruction/construction-contracts/liquidated-damages/ P.1 [i]